Before i started to study at Political Science Department, i had a very few knowledge about China and its past. After i started to study in my department i gradually dived inside of China and Chinese, this was a another kind of world i have never saw and dreamt before. When i continued to read more articles and books about China i have realised that i became a small part of China or maybe China became a small part of me. I focused more on Chinese history, because i need to learn how China started and where China started to make its first and important steps for Todays Modern China. I am sure that the steps in the past still effects China’s policy and daily life. In order to have a understanding of China i just first started to understand the past of China. I know China has very long history, it is impossible to know very detailed and read all the sources from A to Z. My aim is to find the key points and dig them out for people who wants to understand more about China and Chinese Society.
As a Turkish master student i am trying to know more and more during my study about China. In Turkey unfortunately we dont have many books about China, as a Turkish i am so sad that we just need to read the books from other countries or very simple boks about China. After i dived in to Chinese world i saw that today all the steps of China looks like the steps in the past. It is just the different era and different way of using the methods. Today many people doesn’t know about China and they can not distinguish the Chinese style improvement in the Politics or Economics, as a foreign student i am sure that i will catch more points about China and try to open the curtains of a secret society for Turkish people.
In my paper i have started to give some basic informations about China and the course of a 60 years old Chinese history, why i choiced this topic? Because i saw that in this period China met with West and China became a colony of Westerners. This 60 years effected China’s future and opened the way to fall of Qing Dynasty, afterwards another period started that ıs the Republican period of China in 1911. I wanted to focus on this topic and try to give more information about that periods life and affairs. Late Qing Dynasty is the first steps to know West and adopt their way of development. In this period Chinese people learned to fight with foreigners and learned to be together, they started the hate foreigners, maybe the most important was; they started to solve their problems in theirself. They realised that they are undeveloped. They surrendered to West for a while. This is a period was awakening of China, however first effects was so sorrowful and has full of pain, tears and imperialisms bad effects on society. I just wanted to pointed out the sorrow of 60 years just the enterance of a new era. But the worse has not happened, this was just the beginning of the first tears of China.
I just wanted to show the reader how Western world used China and Chinese people. This period reveals many unknown facts about China, i just made a very small scale research about that period. I used many resources from Internet. Also i borrowed many books from our library. One of the key resource in paper is my files, since i started to study in Political Science Department i collect many resources from every source. I try and continue to understand China. I wish in my paper i could give the reader basic understanding about Chinas 60 years period, even i did not use my mother tongue Turkish i tried to compose a undestandable paper.
Chapter I.
China’s Social and Economic Environment in The Beginning of 19.th Century.
This period was the changes period for Chinese people, in the beginning of 18 th century China was meeting with foreigners, this effected the social life and economic life of Qing Dynasty. Before the contact of foreigners China had a own way of life most effected by Confucianism. Qing Dynasty is a key point of Chinese society, in this period there is a big break up in the history and China was started influenced by foreigners. Thus China stepped in a new period that was the one of the worse period in its history.Rebellions, foreign pressure, stagnations on the politics and economic affairs was about the start.The Ch'ing period was the era in which China came into conflict with Europe. Spreading around the globe, Europeans more and more confidently asserted economic monopolies and political power all around the globe, from the Americas to Africa to India and, eventually, to China itself. As the Ch'ing dynasty wore on, Europeans increasingly began to enforce their economic and political will through the use of arms; this practice would eventually be called "gunboat diplomacy" in the nineteenth century. The history of conflict between Europe and China slowly developed over the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; by the middle of the nineteenth century, Chinese and European relations had so degraded that England sent warships in order to preserve its despicable trade in opium to the Chinese people. In Canton during the winter months.
By 1740, the British East India Company had become the largest international corporation in the world. It controlled directly and indirectly vast amounts of land in India and was steadily conquering more land. Sensing profits to be made by trading not just with Europe but with China as well, the East India Company persuaded the British government to negotiate for trading rights with China. The British delegation arrived in Canton in 1793 under the leadership of Lord George Macartney. The Chinese, though, demanded that Macartney present England as a "tribute nation" to China (which was required of all commercial delegations) and to perform rituals of obeisance to the emperor. Even though Macartney refused, he was allowed to see the emperor. The emperor, however, was not pleased by the British behavior and, after politely listening to Macartney, the emperor refused every one of his requests. Thus was set the pattern for European and Chinese relationships over the next two hundred and fifty years. The Macartney mission was a failure because both cultures could not understand the other; this communicative failure still characterizes relationships between European countries and China. More than anything else, however, both cultures believed themselves to be superior both militarily and culturally. Neither would cede to the other on this account, and the history of European and Chinese relations went downhill from there. All these effects has shown the results in the Chinese society and economy. From one side Westerners getting more rights in China and from the other side China was becoming more While foreigners effecting Chinese community they also introduce their culture and religions. This was disliked by Chinese and in the coming years that was the main reason clashes between foreigners and Chinese. In the beginnig of 19 th. Century Chinese territory was covrering all Mongolia and Turkistan. It was a huge territory more than 9 million km square and over 400 million people like today at that time China was the most crowded country in the world.
[1]In the beginning of the 19.th century China was in may problems. From 1790 till 1840 population increased double. According to J.R.Fairbank has main reasons about this, these wer the development in agriculture and increasing of grains, increasing ot transportation in the empire, the success against to diseases, succesfull business on Canton harbour and the peace in the territory because of Manchu empire.
[2]
The 19th century brought developments over China that worsened the economical backwardness that was already seen after the long and glorious reigns of the three emperors Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong. China has been - and still is - a vast imperium that challenges the economical and political abilites of the ruling class. The two main problems are the question of centralized or decentralized administration, and to what extent the state should control the economy for the sake of the population and to fill the state treasure. Both questions should also be crucial for the economical, technical and political backwardness of the 19th century China. A political, economical and social system that had been proved effectiveley for two thousand years seemed to have no need for change or modernization. In the eyes of the Westerners therefore, the political and social sphere of China had been unchanged since thousands of years. The economical sphere meanwhile seemed to have been influenced by Europeans - and at least experienced some modernization after Chinese mandarins became aware of China's economical backwardness. But in fact, economical changes already took place since the mid of 18th century. The long period of peace and the introduction of new crops from the Americas (peanuts, corn, taro) resulted in a steady rise in the population. With an increasing population, there was also the need for a widespread commerce and trade network covering whole China, especially along the waterways of the great rivers and channels. Merchants needed banks for their funds and to finance their business. In Shanxi were the biggest money lending institutes of Qing China, and at the begin of 19th century, new financing methods like letter of credit, transfers, loans, and saving deposits became more widespread. The industry of Qing China was a highly sophisticated system of division of labour. Chinaware, tea, brocade and cotton was produced in specialized regions and cities. Merchants and producers formed non-governmental guilds with comprehensive administratorial functions. While in the west of the USA, a lack of labour force lead to the development of industrial agriculture, the surplus of labour force in China was an impediment for technification. And moreover, the social groups making profit and living in wealth, like the salt traders of the lower Yangtse valley, did consume their income rather for luxury instead of investing in long-term business like a heavy industry. The lack of governmental infererence into the sphere of the economy left this field a prey for the penetrating Western merchants.
The period of peace that followed the ascension of the Qing Dynasty allowed for growth in all areas. Public works were repaired and maintained. Taxes were very light as compared to previous dynasties, and in famine struck areas, taxes were reduced even further. Commerce and international trade grew. This peace allowed for a revival of arts and learning. The areas of the novel, short story and drama contain the most famous literary works. However, poetry, which was a more accepted form of writing, also flourished. The poems show no real innovation, they followed examples set forth by previous dynasties. Encyclopedic works were commissioned by the emperors. Porcelain production continued to be important and innovations were made in the use of new colors. Colors that developed were shades of green, and compositions of black and yellow. A dark blue and brilliant red were also used. Painting was also important, and for the first time European influences are seen. European missionaries were allowed into China and influenced Chinese ideas about science. However, Christianity was later outlawed when European ships with Christian sailors began looting the Chinese coast. Another reason for the outlawing of Christianity was disputes among the missionaries and a papal ecclesiastical policy that was contrary to Chinese policy.
Despite the fact of success in agriculture, rising population had effected the growth of industial development. Trade was in the monopoly of some families who has a support from the state.
[3] During the reign of Qianglong, the borders of China were expanded to their greatest extent ever. His reign was the time of the greatest prosperity during the Qing Dynasty. However, there are also signs of internal problems. Popular uprisings occurred during this time, but they were all put down. The first uprising was in 1774 AD. in Shantung, then in 1775 AD. another uprising occurred, this time it was led by the secret society known as the Society of the White Lotus. In 1813 AD. during the reign of Qianglong's successor, another uprising occurred which was led by the secret society known as the Society of Heaven's Law. The government, while they succeeded in suppressing the uprisings, did not succeed in alleviating the impoverishment that had led to these uprisings. The impact of the west was also felt for the first time in China. Great Britain especially was interested in trading with China for silk and tea. However, the British did not have anything that was easy to import to China until they began importing opium. This was devastating to China. Many became addicted to opium, and land that had previously been used for food began to be used to produce opium. Also, a large amount of Chinese money left the country in payment for the opium.The other problem was the smuggling in the society, the high taxes on the goods lead the people smuggle goods from the borders. The centeral goverment couldn’t stop the trade of opium and this was very popular bad habit in the society. İt was getting more popular every passing day. After the increasing of population also happened may natural disasters. The unsuccesful struggle of state with the disasters lead the citizens rose their voices against to the state. (1830-1839) 136 places has lived natural disasters).The different constitution of society was another problem in the country there was not a common language and indentity. Some parts of the countries was not friendly against to center. They were later conquered places. In the states there were many groups who still has obedience the late Ming dynasty, they had many black sects in the state.
Internal an External Policy of Qing Dynasty in the Beginning of 19.th Century
The most important administrative body of the Qing dynasty was the Grand Council which was a body composed of the emperor and high officials. The Qing dynasty was characterized by a system of dual appointments by which each position in the central government had a Manchu and a Han Chinese assigned to it. During the Qianlong Emperor's reign, for example members of his family were distinguished by garments with a large circular emblem on the back, whereas a Han could only hope to wear clothing with a square emblem; this meant effectively that any guard in the court could immediately distinguish family members from the back view alone. With respect to Mongolia, Tibet and Eastern Turkestan, the Qing Dynasty maintained a loose system of control, with the Qing emperor acting as Mongol Khan, patron of Tibetan Buddhism and supporter of Muslims and keeping a loose system of control. How this system is best described remains a strong point of controversy because of its current political implications. Supporters of Chinese nationalism argue that Qing rule over these areas is best described as an extremely high degree of autonomy within a single nation-state, while supporters of Tibetan independence argue that the Qing dynasty was a personal union between many nation-states.
The abdication of the Manchu Emperor, who had integrated the Empire, inevitably led to the controversy about the status of the Qing outer territories. It was and remains the position of Mongols and Tibetan nationalists, that because they owed allegiance to the Qing monarch in a personal capacity, that with the abdication of the Qing, they owed no allegiance to the Chinese state. This position was rejected by the new Republic of China and subsequent People's Republic of China which have claimed that these areas remained integral parts of China. The Western powers accepted the latter theory, largely in order to prevent a scramble for China.
The 19th century brought developments over China that worsened the economical backwardness that was already seen after the long and glorious reigns of the three emperors Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong. China has been - and still is - a vast imperium that challenges the economical and political abilites of the ruling class. The two main problems are the question of centralized or decentralized administration, and to what extent the state should control the economy for the sake of the population and to fill the state treasure. Both questions should also be crucial for the economical, technical and political backwardness of the 19th century China. A political, economical and social system that had been proved effectiveley for two thousand years seemed to have no need for change or modernization. In the eyes of the Westerners therefore, the political and social sphere of China had been unchanged since thousands of years. The economical sphere meanwhile seemed to have been influenced by Europeans - and at least experienced some modernization after Chinese mandarins became aware of China's economical backwardness. But in fact, economical changes already took place since the mid of 18th century. The long period of peace and the introduction of new crops from the Americas (peanuts, corn, taro) resulted in a steady rise in the population. With an increasing population, there was also the need for a widespread commerce and trade network covering whole China, especially along the waterways of the great rivers and channels. Merchants needed banks for their funds and to finance their business.
In Shanxi were the biggest money lending institutes of Qing China, and at the begin of 19th century, new financing methods like letter of credit, transfers, loans, and saving deposits became more widespread. The industry of Qing China was a highly sophisticated system of division of labour. Chinaware, tea, brocade and cotton was produced in specialized regions and cities. Merchants and producers formed non-governmental guilds with comprehensive administratorial functions. While in the west of the USA, a lack of labour force lead to the development of industrial agriculture, the surplus of labour force in China was an impediment for technification. And moreover, the social groups making profit and living in wealth, like the salt traders of the lower Yangtse valley, did consume their income rather for luxury instead of investing in long-term business like a heavy industry. The lack of governmental infererence into the sphere of the economy left this field a prey for the penetrating Western merchants.
China’s Army İn Early 19.th Century[4]
We could not say that China has a modern army till the opium wars. Actually Opium wars has tested the ability of Qing Army. Till that time China had a old system weapons against the Western Powers. This was not known by Chinese because they had not buildany connection with the West. Especially weakness in the Navy was the biggest reason to lost the wars in the Sea during the Qing Period. Against to powerfull Western Navy China had the wooden ships. This was a main disadvantage during the Opium Wars. By the early of 19.th century Qing Dynasty was in the dark against the West. It was busy abouth its internal problems. By late 1800s China was fast descending into a semi colonial state. Even the most conservative elements in the Qing court could no longer ignore China's military weakness in contrast to the foreign "barbarians" literally beating down its Gates. In 1860 during the Second Opium War, the capital Beijing was captured and the (Old) Summer Palace sacked by the relatively small Anglo-French coalition numbering 25,000. Although the Chinese pride themselves as the inventor of gunpower, and firearms had been in continual use in Chinese warfare since as far back as the Sung Dynasty, the advent of modern weaponry resulting from the Industrial Revolution in Europe such as the grooved rifle barrel (1855), Maxim gun (1885), and steam driven battleships (1890s) had rendered China's traditionally trained and equipped army and navy obsolete. Various piece meal efforts to 'westernize' and update the weaponry of existing troops - mostly in the Haui Army yielded little lasting results. This was partly due to a lack of funds but mostly a lack of political will within the Qing government to see through measures of reform.
Losing the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 - 1895 was a watershed for the Qing government. Japan, a country long regarded by the Chinese as little more than an upstart nation of pirates, had convincingly beaten its larger neighbor and in the process annihilated the Qing government's pride - it's modernized North Sea fleet. In doing so, Japan became the first asian country to join the previously western ranks of colonial powers. The defeat was all the more shocking when seen in the context that it occured a mere three decades after the Meiji reforms set Japan on course to emulate the Western nations in their economic and technological advancements. Finally in December 1894 the Qing government took some concrete steps to reform military institutions and to re-train selected units in westernized drills, tactics and weaponry. These units were collectively called the New Model Army (新式陸軍). The most successful of which was the Beiyang Corps (北洋軍) under the overall supervision and control of an ex-Huai Army commander, the Han Chinese General Yuan Shikai (袁世凱), who exploited his position to eventually become Republic president, dictator and finally abortive emperor of China.
Chapter II.
English Trade in China in 1800’s
In thi period China was stil adopting the closing policy against to the world. The trade was doing just in Canton harbour. The most important trade artner was England. English Eat India Company was in the Canton region since 1715 and they was controlling all the trade actions in Canton region. The company has its own monopoly on the trada actions between all the foreigners, even the other traders had to get a allowance from East India Company.
[5] The impact of the west was also felt for the first time in China. Great Britain especially was interested in trading with China for silk and tea. However, the British did not have anything that was easy to import to China.Great Britain and other European nations, desiring her silk, tea and porcelain, wanted badly to trade with China. China, however, wanted nothing to do with Europe, and even refused to see European diplomats. Finally in 1793, a British diplomat was successful in reaching the Chinese court. He told the Chinese of the wonderful products of his country, convinced that once they really knew what Europe had to offer, they would quickly agree to engage in trade. China, however, was unmoved. In a letter to King George, the emperor said, . . . As your Ambassador can see for himself, we possess all things. I set no value on objects strange or ingenious, and have no use for your country's manufactures. . . Our Celestial Empire possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no product within its own borders. There was therefore no need to import the manufactures of outside barbarians in exchange for our own produce. But as the tea, silk and porcelain which the Celestial Empire produces, are absolute necessities to European nations and to yourselves, we have permitted, as a signal mark of favour, that foreign hongs [merchant firms] should be established at Canton, so that your wants might be supplied and your country thus participate in our beneficence. [6]
Because Chinese goods were so sought-after in Europe, an imbalance of trade developed. European gold and silver went to China to import goods, but none returned because there was no possibility of export. This was unacceptable to the British and they desperately looked for a solution
. England was buyind but nothing sellng to China and this became a very crucial problem between China and England. The deficit in the trade of Englang between two countries was increasing and England was not happy about that until they began importing opium
[7].
The Opium and Chinese
Although opium had been used in China for medicinal purposes for a long time, it had not been used as a recreational drug. By 1729, the year in which the emperor first place a ban on its importation, only some 200 chests (each of about 130 pounds of the drug) were coming in annually. At first the lead in what was now to become an illegal trade was taken by the Portuguese, but these were displaced by British merchants in the latter stage of the eighteenth century, by which time well over 1,000 chests per annum were being smuggled in. The reason for Britain's ascendancy was the gradual takeover of the administration of India by the British government and the activities of the British-owned East India Company in advancing trade with China. Many merchant ships, operating under the license of the E.I.C., increasingly brought in illegal opium to sell to local intermediaries at Canton, sometimes with the corrupt collusion of local officials. Use of the drug spread everywhere in China and, despite scores of imperial edicts since 1729, it proved impossible to prevent its smuggling. By the 1820s, over 10,000 chests per annum were brought in illegally. The British introduced opium to China in 1825, and soon, not surprisingly, Chinese began to be addicted to the drug. The emperor outlawed the possession, use, and trade in opium, but the profits were so immense, that an illegal trade quickly developed. The East India Company in India supplied all the opium the Chinese wanted and the Chinese government was unable to stop the smuggling. The balance of trade gradually reversed.
In 1839 the Emperor ordered Commissioner Lin Tse-Hsu to put a stop to the opium trade. Lin wrote to Queen Victoria, appealing to the British sense of justice and compassion:
We have heard that in your own country opium is prohibited with the utmost strictness and severity:---this is a strong proof that you know full well how hurtful it is to mankind. Since then you do not permit it to injure your own country, you ought not to have the injurious drug transferred to another country, and above all others, how much less to the Inner Land! Of the products which China exports to your foreign countries, there is not one which is not beneficial to mankind in some shape or other. There are those which serve for food, those which are useful, and those which are calculated for re-sale; but all are beneficial. Has China (we should like to ask) ever yet sent forth a noxious article from its soil?[8]
He received no reply. Left on his own to solve the problem, Lin ordered the destruction of a large supply of opium stored on Chinese soil. (The Chinese had allowed the British one port in which they could trade with China).
Chapter III.
Lin Ze Xu and The Precautions in Canton Region
Modern Chinese history actually started after the outbreak of the Opium War. The British had started to smuggle opium to Chinese ports and spread the habit of opium smoking among the Chinese people. By the 1830s, there were some ten million opium addicts in China, leading to a serious drain of silver westwards. By 1835, there were already two million opium-smokers in the coastal cities of China. From 1800 to 1838, the British had smuggled hundreds of thousand cases of opium into China. And at the time, Western trade was conducted through the monopolistic of cial Chinese agents called cohong, who were forced to spend half of the year in Macau, were only allowed to live in the "factory area" -- a small strip of land opposite Guangzhou, and were forbidden to enter the city and bring their wives.
In 1838, Lin Ze Xu was appointed the Imperial Commissioner in charge of dealing with opium smuggling. In 1839, Emperor Dao Guang ordered Commissioner Lin to suppress the entire opium trade. A death penalty was imposed on anyone involved in the trade. Lin discovered 22 British ships, each loaded with a thousand cases of opium. He ordered the owners of the opium to surrender the opium and gave them an ultimatum. The British initially tried to bribe him and surrendered only a thousand cases. When they failed to bribe him, they threatened him. Lin, being a patriot, insisted that they surrender the whole amount. When the British defated him, he ordered his men to burn all the opium and throw it into the sea. This provoked the British and a clash took place between the forces of the British and Lin's men. The burning of the opium resulted in the Opium War in 1840.
On August 21, 1840, the Emperor dismissed Lin Ze-Xü from his post as Imperial Commissioner.
“You have caused this war by your excessive zeal.” the Emperor wrote.
“You have lied to us, disguising in your dispatches the true color of affairs. Instead of helping us, you have only caused confusion to arise. Now, one thousand unending problems are sprouting. You have behaved as if your arms are tied. You are no better than a wooden dummy. As we think about your grievous failings, we become furious, and then melancholy.”
[10]Stripped of his title, Lin Tse-hsü was exiled to the isolated northern frontier province of Ili, where he was given the task of supervising large scale irrigation and flood control projects. Lin Tse-hsü gradually recovered from the disgrace of his failure to put an end to the opium trade. Ten years after his dismissal, the Emperor again summoned him into service. Lin was reinstated as Imperial Commissioner, and assigned to travel to the rebellious province of Kwangsi to negotiate with rebel factions. Lin Tse-hsü collapsed and died while en route to Kwangsi on November 22, 1850, at the age of 67.
The successive Imperial Commissioners who replaced Lin Tse-hsü in Canton were unable to stop the opium traffic. In conflicts known as the First and Second Opium Wars, British naval and marine forces seized control of Hong Kong, ravaged the Chinese coastline and briefly occupied the capital city of Peking. In 1858 the Chinese government, bowing to British demands, reluctantly legalized the importation of opium.
Chapter IV.
Declaration of War
In the spring of 1839 the Chinese authorities at Canton seized the opium and set fire to it. War broke out when Chinese junks attempted to turn back English merchant vessels in November of 1839; although this was a low-level conflict, it inspired the English to send warships in June of 1840. The Chinese, with old-style weapons and artillery, were no match for the British gunships, which ranged up and down the coast shooting at forts and fighting on land. The Chinese were equally unprepared for the technological superiority of the British land armies, and suffered continual defeats. Finally, in 1842, the Chinese were forced to agree to an ignomious peace under the Treaty of Nanking. . The negotiations were protracted because it took days to translate Chinese documents into English and then English documents in Chinese.
Treaty of Nanjing[11](1842) and Aftermath of The War
The Qing had no effective tactics against the powerful British navy. They retaliated merely by setting burning rafts on the enemy's fleet and encouraging people to take the heads of the enemies, for which they offered a prize. The imperial banner troops, although they sometimes fought fiercely, were ill-equipped and lacked training for warfare against the more-modern British forces. The Green Standard battalions were similarly in decay and without much motivation or good leadership. To make up the weakness, local militias were urgently recruited, but they were useless. The British proclaimed that their aim was to fight the government officials and soldiers who abused the people, not to make war against the Chinese population. And indeed there was a deep rift between the government and the people that the British could easily exploit, a weakness in Qing society that became apparent during the crisis of the war.After the defeat of Chinese Army, English goverment force China to sign unequal treaties. According to the main provisions of the treaty, China ceded Hong Kong to Britain, opened five ports to British trade, abolished the cohong system of trade, agreed to equal official recognition, and paid an indemnity of $21 million. This was the result of the first clash between China, which had regarded foreign trade as a favour given by the heavenly empire to the poor barbarians, and the British, to whom trade and commerce had become “the true herald of civilization.” Also China gave England Most Favoured Nation status thus Chinese helped English merchants during their trade in China. China was forced to opene Fu Zhou, Ning Bo, Shanghai and Amoy harbours to English trade. Missionaries have gained many rights to work in Chinese harbours thus they could introduce China their religion and culture. In the treatment there was not any subject about opium smuggling.[12]
İn this treaty China lost the control over trade and turned in to a colony of Imperialist Countries. This was a important period for China because it was opening to West. While Westerners coming to the China, China was loosing its culture and power. After Treaty of Nanjing other countries forced China to sign new treaties between them. While the foreigners were coming to China, in the country the dislike against to foreigners was increasing. The end of the war caused many disorder in Chinese community, China was forced to pay unequal compensation to England.
The Treaty of Nanjing was followed by two supplementary arrangements with the British in 1843, In addition, in July 1844 China signed the Treaty of Wanghia (Wangxia) with the United States and in October the Treaty of Whampoa (Huangpu) with France. These arrangements made up a complex of foreign privileges by virtue of the most-favoured-nation clauses (guaranteeing trading equality) conceded to every signatory. All in all, they provided a basis for later inroads such as the loss of tariff autonomy, extraterritoriality (exemption from the application or jurisdiction of local law or tribunals), and the free movement of missionaries.
With the signing of the treatieswhich began the so-called treaty-port system the imperial commissioner Qiying, newly stationed at Guangzhou, was put in charge of foreign affairs. Following a policy of appeasement, his dealings with foreigners started fairly smoothly. But, contrary to the British expectation, the amount of trade dropped after 1846, and, to British dissatisfaction, the question of opium remained unsettled in the postwar arrangements.The core of the Sino-Western tension, however, rested in an antiforeign movement inGuangdong.[13]
Conclusion
The worse period of China has started after The Treaty of Nanjing, from now on all the Westerners wanted to rush and tried to obtain many privilages from China. England wanted to use Chinas resources but they try to save Chinas territory. The next 60 years was the years of war and pain. From one side England was saving the lands but its own rights on China in the otherside Russia and Japan has already made many bad aims on Chinese soils. Treaty of Nanjing was the first step for foreign powers to invade China. They continued even harder and worse Missionaries was grabing the people and poluting the society. Opium was killing the people from any age. Corruption and the Goverment was misusing their power. All of them was sucking Chinas power, The second Opium War, Taiping Rebellion, Sino-Japanese War was waiting for China in coming years. Even China was under of the bad situation from the other side China entered another important period in its history, this was the Self-Strengthening Movement, lasted for nearly 35 years (1861-1894). In this period China has built its own filotilla, even this filotilla lost the battles against to Japan and English army, it was the first signs of coming big revolutions and changes in the society. All this bad effects from the West or East(Japan) has changed the road of China. China decided to has its own freedom and put a side the old customs. Chinese society has learned the main thing about Western world, it was “İf you want to surpass and beat West, we need to use the tactics of West in every field”. After the beginning of this thought, China has started to changes its thousand years old thoughts and customs, they started to play game like Westerners. In this period China gave many privilages to others but at the end China has succeded to beat them and rose from its own ashes. This 60 years what i wrote in my paper is the first part. The hardest part is next coming 60 years. In order to understand the modern China we need to learn and understand this two diffferent sixty years, i am sure that students can start from this period what i have mentioned in my paper and they will continue their studies more and sounder. Since 1800 to 1900 years, in 100 years China made a great effort to be a free nation. İn every part of Chinese life we see the changes. After 1900 the efforts continued uncheasingly and resulted with the first big revolution of China. This was Sun Yat Sen and the Republican Chinese period. I believe that, these periods will enligthen the upcoming researches about China and Chinese Society.
Referances
Turkish Resources:
Deniz Ülkü Arıboğan,2001,Çin’in Gölgesinde Uzakdoğu Asya, Ankara, Bağlam Yayınları.
English Resources:
John E. Schrecker, 1991The Chinese Revolution in Historical Perspective, Praeger Publishers,
Michael Greenberg, 1951, British Trade and Opening of China 1800–42, Cambridge University Press.
Peter C.Perdue, 2005, China Marches West The Qing Conquest Of Central Eurasia, Harvard University Press.
Internet Resources:
www.historywiz.com,http://www.historywiz.com/downfall.htm, 〈Opium: The Downfall of Imperial China〉, 2007.12.16, 20:30.
www.experiencefestival.com,/http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Qing_Dynasty_-_Qing_government_and_society/id/1743286,〈Qing Dynasty - Politics〉,2007.12.20, 20:40.
[1] J.Chesnaux,M.Bastid,M.C Bergere China from the Opium Wars to the 1911 Revolution, translated by Anne Destenay.Sussex,The Harvester Press.,1973,p.3.
[2] John King Fairbank, China A New History, London, The Belknap Pres of Harvard University, 1992, p.168; for more information please refer to “Effects of Goverment Intervention on Population Growth İn The Emperial China”, Journal of Family History, Vol 18 issue 3,1993,p.213-231.
[3] Hung Mo, Effective Competion and Economic Development of Imperial China, Kyklos, Vol.48,issue 1,1995,p.87-104.
[4] http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Qing_Dynasty_-_Qing_government_and_society/id/1743286
[5] Fahir Armanoglu, Political History of 19.th Century, Ankara.TTK,1997.p.743
[6] http://www.historywiz.com/downfall.htm
[7] http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/later_imperial_china/qing.html
[8] http://www.historywiz.com/downfall.htm
[9] This part was quoted from wikipedia.com
[10] This part was quoted from http://opioids.com/opium/opiumwar.html
[11] For more information please refer to http://www.international.ucla.edu/eas/documents/nanjing.htm
[12] Lawrence James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire, London, Abacus, 1998, p.237
[13] http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-71768/China